Language and identity in Spain: a neutral guide to sensitivities

Key rules

• Co-official: Spanish is official everywhere, and Catalan, Valencian, Galician, Basque and Aranese are co-official only in certain regions.
• Dialects: Catalan, Galician and Basque are languages, not dialects, so avoid calling them dialects.
• Local names: Use the local name of the language, such as Valencian in Valencia, and ask which language the person prefers.
• Sensitive topics: Leave independence, the Franco era, school-language policy and shop fines out of a first conversation.
• Regions differ: Catalonia is the most charged and Galicia the least, so do not treat every region the same.

The short version

Spanish is official everywhere in Spain. In several regions, another language is co-official next to it. These languages are tied to history, schooling and political status, so people can feel strongly about them. You stay safe by using the local name for the language, showing curiosity, and leaving opinions on the politics to others.

Where each language is co-official

• Catalan is co-official in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.
• Valencian is the Valencian name for Catalan. It is co-official in the Valencian Community.
• Galician is co-official in Galicia.
• Basque (euskera) is co-official in the Basque Country and in the Basque-speaking zone of Navarre. Navarre is split into a Basque-speaking zone, a mixed zone and a zone where Basque has no official status.
• Aranese, a variety of Occitan, is co-official in Catalonia, with special protection in the Val d'Aran.

Asturian and Aragonese have protection laws but are not co-official. The same is true of Catalan in eastern Aragon. Some inland areas of Valencia are Spanish-only, so Valencian is less required there in schools and official use.

Why the subject is charged

Under Franco (1939-1975), Catalan, Basque and Galician were banned from public administration, education and publishing. Many speakers never learned to read and write their own language. After 1978, regions made these languages co-official and began teaching and using them in public services and media.

Supporters see this as repairing past repression and protecting small languages. Critics see it as imposing a language and limiting Spanish. In Catalonia, language is also tied to the independence debate, especially since the 2017 referendum. That is why it keeps coming back in party politics and in court.

The schooling debate

Schooling is the sharpest point, and it matters if you have children.

• Catalonia: Catalan is the main teaching language and Spanish is a subject. Courts have ruled that Spanish must also be used in class. The dispute continues in politics and in court.
• Basque Country: Families choose between model A (Spanish, with Basque as a subject), B (bilingual) and D (Basque). Most pupils choose D.
• Galicia: A decree sets minimum shares for each language. The 2010 "free choice" reform is still criticised.
• Balearics and Valencia: Language and "plurilingual" models are contested. Recent Valencian rules have eased the Valencian requirement in some schools.

Rulings and decrees change often, so ask the school what applies now.

Shop signs and public use

Catalonia requires businesses to give at least basic information on signs, labels and menus in Catalan, and to be able to serve customers in it. Other co-official regions have similar rules of varying strength. Fines are rare, and enforcement mostly follows complaints. Courts have said regional laws may require the regional language but may not exclude Spanish. Public signs in Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country are usually bilingual or put the regional language first.

How sensitive each region is

• Catalonia is generally the most charged, because language links to independence and school policy.
• The Balearics are also contested, mainly over education and Catalan in public services.
• Valencia has an extra dispute over whether Valencian and Catalan are one language, plus division over compulsory Valencian.
• The Basque Country treats Basque widely as a heritage language. Politics is involved, but there is less open conflict.
• Galicia has the least confrontation. Galician is widely spoken and accepted, though school quotas are debated.

Attitudes also vary by town, age and family. Do not assume one view from the region alone.

What to say and what to avoid

Use the local name: Catalan, Valencian, Galician or Basque. "The local language" and "co-official languages" are also neutral. Questions like "Which language do you prefer?" work well. Asking how to say a greeting or a word in the local language is usually welcome.

In a first conversation, avoid these topics:

• independence
• the Franco era
• school-language policy
• fines on shops
• which language is "more useful"
• whether people should speak Spanish

Catalan, Galician and Basque are full languages with their own grammar, literature and official status, so never call them dialects. Basque is not even related to Spanish. Catalan and Galician grew from Latin alongside Spanish, not from it. Under Franco the word "dialect" was used to belittle them, so it sounds dismissive. "Dialect" is fine only for variants within a language, such as Mallorcan Catalan.

If you are unsure

Stay neutral and ask practical questions. Listen more than you comment. The decision and warning boxes below help with common situations, and the quick answers cover etiquette when you start a conversation.

Choosing between options

How should you handle the language and schooling debate when it comes up?

• Stay neutral and ask: Use this in a first conversation or with people you do not know well. Ask which language they prefer and show interest in the local language.

• Listen and learn: Use this when someone raises schooling themselves. In Catalonia, the immersion model teaches mainly in Catalan, with Spanish as a subject. Supporters say it keeps Catalan alive, while opponents want families to choose the teaching language. Courts have required some Spanish teaching.

• Ask practical questions about your child's school: Use this when you are choosing a school. The Basque Country offers three models: Spanish with Basque as a subject, bilingual, and Basque-medium. Galicia, the Balearics and Valencia set their own language shares, so ask each school how it teaches.

If you are not sure the other person wants the debate, stay neutral and do not give your own view. Talk about schooling in detail only when they bring it up, or when you are choosing a school for your child.

What to watch out for

What to watch out for

• Topics to avoid in a first conversation: Catalan independence, the Franco era, school-language policy, fines on shops, and comments on whether people should speak Spanish can quickly cause offence. Comparing languages by which is more useful does the same. Stick to neutral questions such as 'Which language do you prefer?' and show interest by asking how to say a greeting or a word in the local language.

• Calling a regional language a dialect: Catalan, Galician and Basque are languages, not dialects. The word suggests an inferior version of Spanish, and under Franco it was used to belittle them. Basque is not even related to Spanish. Say 'the local language' or use its local name. Use 'dialect' only for regional variants inside a language, such as Mallorcan Catalan.

• Treating every region the same: Catalonia is generally the most charged, as language is linked to independence and schools. The Balearics are also contested, and Valencia adds a dispute over whether Valencian and Catalan are one language. The Basque Country is less openly conflicted, and Galicia has the least confrontation. Be most careful in Catalonia, the Balearics and Valencia, and follow the words the person you are talking to uses.

Quick answers on regional language etiquette

What should I call the language in Valencian territory?

In Valencian territory, say valencià, or Valencian in English. Use Catalan only if the other person says it first. Avoid debating whether the two are the same language.

Should I start a conversation in Spanish or the regional language?

Greet in the local language if you know a few words, such as bon dia, then continue in Spanish unless the other person switches. Almost everyone speaks Spanish in the co-official regions, and an attempt at the local language is appreciated. English usually works in tourist areas and cities.

Why do locals reply in Spanish or English when I speak the regional language?

Locals usually switch to be courteous and spare you effort, not to reject you. They often assume a foreign accent means you do not speak the local language, and some want to practise English. If you want to keep going in the local language, say so with a smile.