Catalonia, the Basque Country and other territorial tensions

Key rules

• Core issue: The dispute is about who decides, Madrid or the regions, and it mixes identity, language, money and history.
• Puigdemont: The amnesty covers many people, but Puigdemont's own case is still unresolved in the courts.
• ETA: ETA dissolved in 2018, but victims, prisoners and unsolved killings keep the subject raw.
• In conversation: Do not assume a Catalan or Basque person supports independence; many do not.

The short version

Territorial politics in Spain is about who decides: Madrid or the regions. It mixes identity, language, money and painful history. People often hold strong views, so listen first when it comes up.

Catalonia: the 2017 crisis

On 1 October 2017 the Catalan government held an independence referendum that the Constitutional Court had suspended. Police violence marked the day. The Catalan government said 90% voted yes, on a turnout of about 43%.

On 27 October the Catalan parliament declared independence. The Senate approved direct rule from Madrid the same day. Madrid dismissed the Catalan government, took control and called elections for 21 December. Carles Puigdemont, the Catalan president, fled to Belgium.

In October 2019 the Supreme Court sentenced nine leaders to between 9 and 13 years for sedition. Some were also convicted of misuse of funds. They were pardoned in June 2021. Sedition was reformed in 2022.

Supporters see the events as a democratic demand that was met with force. Opponents see an attempt to break the constitution. Both readings are still deeply felt.

The amnesty

An amnesty law came into force in June 2024. It covers many people involved in the independence process. The Constitutional Court upheld it in large part in June 2025.

Puigdemont's case is different. A Supreme Court judge refused to apply the law to him over the embezzlement charge, so his arrest warrant stood. Spain has put questions to the EU Court of Justice, and his appeal to the Constitutional Court is pending. Check the latest rulings, because this is moving.

The amnesty is divisive because it was part of the deal that kept Pedro Sánchez in office. Critics call it a political bargain. Supporters call it a way to calm the conflict.

Who governs Catalonia now

Salvador Illa, of the Socialists (PSC), has been president since August 2024. He leads a minority government. It is backed by ERC, under an agreement on a new financing model with a "singular" tax-collection arrangement, and by the Comuns. The PSC does not back independence. It favours dialogue and better self-government inside Spain. Other regions governed by the PP contested the financing deal.

The Basque Country and ETA's legacy

ETA was a Basque armed separatist group founded in 1959. It killed about 850 people from the late 1960s. It declared a permanent ceasefire in January 2011 and announced a definitive end to armed activity in October 2011. It handed over weapons in 2017 and announced its dissolution in May 2018.

It still matters. Around 300 or more killings remain unsolved. Disputes continue over prison policy for ETA inmates, how victims are remembered, and the role of EH Bildu. Treat the subject with great care, because many families were directly affected.

The Basque Country has its own parliament, government and tax system, the concierto económico. Since 2024 the regional president, the Lehendakari, is Imanol Pradales of the PNV. He governs in coalition with the Basque Socialists. In the April 2024 election the PNV and EH Bildu won 27 seats each. EH Bildu, the left pro-independence coalition, is the main opposition and leads some major councils. In national politics, PNV has often backed Sánchez's governments, and EH Bildu has backed specific measures. Navarra is separate and keeps its own foral system.

Language politics

In Catalonia the fight is over Catalan as the main language of teaching. Courts have ordered at least 25% of classes in Spanish in some schools. The Catalan government resisted, and a 2022 Catalan law aimed to protect the model. The Constitutional Court has generally upheld Catalan as a teaching language alongside Spanish.

Other disputes cover language quotas in public services, audiovisual content and the courts. Congress began allowing Catalan, Basque and Galician in 2023, and their use in the EU is also debated. In the Basque Country the argument is about Basque requirements for public jobs. In Galicia it is about a 2010 decree limiting Galician in schools and the share of teaching in Galician. Court cases are ongoing.

Other tensions

Money is the biggest issue. The funding system for most regions has been overdue for reform since 2014. Catalonia wants a Basque-style single tax collection. Navarra's status is disputed: Basque nationalists want closer ties, while UPN and PP resist. The Canary Islands press for support with migration, including unaccompanied minors, and argue over oil exploration and their special economic regime. Galicia's concerns are language and funding for an ageing population.

What this means for you

You do not need a position. Avoid flags and loaded words, and do not assume that a Catalan or Basque person wants independence. Many do not. The warning below covers conversation pitfalls, and the FAQ answers common questions.

Political topics to handle carefully in conversation

• Territorial politics and Catalan independence: Catalan independence, Spain's unity and the amnesty law touch identity and a sense of belonging. They are the most sensitive subjects in everyday talk. Next come the Civil War and Franco's legacy, corruption scandals, the monarchy, immigration and housing, and Gaza. With new acquaintances, ask questions and listen. Do not take a side, and let them raise the subject first.

• Civil War and Franco: Many families have painful stories from the Civil War and the dictatorship. Debates about the Valle de Cuelgamuros, Franco's monument, are personal as well as political. Do not joke about Franco or the war. Avoid asking someone which side their family was on.

• Loaded flags and symbols: The red-and-yellow flag is the official one. The red-yellow-purple tricolor is the Second Republic flag, linked to the left. The flag with the eagle is Francoist. The estelada is the Catalan independence flag, the senyera is the official Catalan flag, and the ikurriña is the Basque flag. A yellow ribbon shows support for jailed Catalan separatist leaders. Do not wear or display a flag or symbol you have not placed. Do not comment on other people's.

• Words that signal a side: Calling the Civil War the 'Cruzada' or 'Alzamiento' uses Francoist terms. 'Facha' means fascist and 'rojo' is an old Francoist insult for leftists. 'Charnego' (Catalonia) and 'maketo' (Basque Country) are insults for people from elsewhere in Spain. 'Presos políticos' and 'políticos presos' are rival ways to describe jailed Catalan leaders. 'Procés' is the 2012-2017 Catalan independence push, and 'indepe' means an independence supporter. Some nationalists avoid saying 'España' and say 'el Estado español'. Use neutral words: 'la Guerra Civil', 'Cataluña' or 'Catalunya', and 'the independence movement'. Repeat the term the other person uses only if you are sure of its meaning.

• Where speech has legal limits: Free speech is protected, but the Criminal Code limits some speech. Insulting the Crown or the royal family, insulting Spain's flag, anthem or emblems, inciting hatred or discrimination, glorifying terrorism and humiliating its victims can all be offences. Fines also apply to disrespect towards police and to unauthorised demonstrations. A 2022 memory law allows fines for praising the 1936 coup or the dictatorship, or for humiliating its victims. Ordinary criticism is rarely prosecuted. Cases are mostly about violence or hate speech. Think before posting jokes or strong opinions online, and avoid insults aimed at the Crown, victims, police or groups of people.

Frequently asked questions

Is Puigdemont covered by the amnesty law?

Not so far, because a Supreme Court judge refused to apply the amnesty to his embezzlement charge, so his arrest warrant stood. Many other people involved in the independence process were covered. His case now depends on a pending constitutional appeal and on questions Spain sent to the EU Court of Justice.

Who governs Catalonia now, and does the government want independence?

Salvador Illa of the PSC (Socialists) has been president of Catalonia since August 2024, and he does not back independence. He governs in minority, with support from ERC and the Comuns. His party favours dialogue and better self-government within Spain.

What roles do PNV and EH Bildu play in the Basque Country?

PNV leads the Basque government, and EH Bildu is the main opposition. Imanol Pradales of the PNV has been Lehendakari (regional president) since 2024, in coalition with the Basque Socialists. EH Bildu, a left pro-independence coalition, also leads some major councils, and both parties have often backed Pedro Sánchez's governments in Congress.

Which other regional disputes make the news besides Catalonia?

Regional funding is the biggest one, because the common-regime system has been overdue for reform since 2014. Navarra's status is also disputed, and the Canary Islands push for help with migrant arrivals, including unaccompanied minors.